Ramya Sree

Name:          RamyaSree
height:          5'6
weight:         58kg
colour:         white
looks:          very fair

Tower Bridge

London's Tower Bridge is one of the most recognizable bridges in the world. Its Victorian Gothic style stems from a law that forced the designers to create a structure that would be in harmony with the nearby Tower of London.


Bridge History
Plans for the Tower Bridge were devised around 1876 when the east of London became extremely crowded and a bridge across the Thames in that area of the city seemed a necessity. It would take another eight years - and lots of discussions about the design - before construction of the bridge started.


The bridge, designed by city architect Horace Jones in collaboration with John Wolfe Barry, would eventually be completed in 1894. Five contractors and nearly 450 workers were involved in the construction of the 265 meter long bridge. It took 11,000 tons of steel to build the framework. At the time many people disliked its Victorian Gothic design, but over time the bridge became one of London's most famous symbols.

Mechanics

Tower bridge raising
The proximity of the harbor and its location in the direction of the sea required for the bridge to allow the passage of large vessels. Hence the decision to create a moveable bridge which can be opened to accommodate boat traffic. The mechanism to open the bridge is hidden in the two towers. Until 1976, when the mechanism became electrified, steam power was used to pump water into hydraulic accumulators which powered the engines.

Each deck is more than 30 meters wide and can be opened to an angle of 83 degrees. When opened the bridge has a clearance of almost 45 meter. It used to open almost 50 times a day but nowadays it is only raised about 1,000 times a year.
Tower Bridge at night
Bridge lifts are pre-scheduled (for cruise ships, etc) so visitors can check the bridge's website to find out when it will rise and lower.

Visiting the Bridge
Taking photographs of the Tower bridge is a favorite London tourist activity, but you can also go inside the bridge, where you'll have a magnificent view over London from the walkway between the two bridge towers.

Inside the bridge is the Tower bridge Exhibition, a display area that encompasses the walkway and the two famous towers where you can observe the Victorian engine room. Visitors can learn about the history of the bridge via photos, films, and other media.

Currently the bridge is undergoing a renovation project that should be completed in 2012.

Nigeria places to see

Nigeria the most populated black nation in the world is situated in the western part of africa,with various tribal communities but the major tribes are THE YORUBA ,HAUSA, AND THE IBO TRIBES.these major tribes contitute the major grouping of the minor tribes in this country.

With as many negative press that nigeria has received most especially from the western media one cannot but wonder why the foreigners in this country refused to return to their country, they are sread up all over the 36 states that made up this lovely country.This is due to the various tourist attractions and natural resources this country is blessed with by the almighty God.

My intention is to disabuse your mind about nigeria and also point out that there are many peculiarities about countries all over the world,even the USA(UNITED STATE OF AMERICA) have her own peculiar traits.while people claim that there is crime in some part of nigeria, is there any country in the world that can claim to be a crime free country? it does not matter what people say, nigeria is blessed that is why i want to direct you to the various fun spots in nigeria and you will not regret paying a visit to this places when next you are on holiday.If you have doubt then ask :Beyonce and JayZee,Usher,Ciara,Kanye west,Snoop dog,Wyclef Jean and all the music stars that have visited this great country.

When you come to nigeria try and visit these place:

In ABUJA, you can visit the Nicon-Noga Hilton Hotel and the Zuma Rock .The pictures are the zuma rock and the Nicon-Nuga Hilton Hotel


Abuja is the federal capital of nigeria.You can also visit the following places in the other states in nigeria.Abia state has the following attractions:National War Museum: displays relics of the Nigerian civil war and inventions,Aba: foremost electronics and indigenous technology ,Akwette: Blue River TouristVillage, Uwana Beach Akwette: Famous for it's unique weaving industry,Aba Central Market,Arochukwu Shrine (The long Juju) .

Cross Rivers state has the latest tourist attraction in nigeria it is called the obudu cattle ranch this place is heaven on earth, it the venue for the annual IAAF recognised marathon,where many international athletes have competed and are still competing.

There are other attractions in the state such as:Agbokin Falls, Kwa Falls,Game Reserve at Okwangwo in Obudu local governmen, Boshi Game Reserve ,Mary Slessor Cottage, National Museum.There are many others that i will also endeavour to let you know as time goes on.

Lamu

Lamu is the largest town on Lamu Island, an archipelago in Kenya. Founded in the 14th century, it is home to approximately 12,000 people.

Lamu enjoys a tropical climate. The summer, July-Sept, is warm at 35C, but the constant ocean breeze makes it pleasant. The winter months of November-March are just slightly cooler at 30C.
Once a thriving port city, Lamu was a centre for trade, timber, ivory, amber, spices and slaves. Today the local population, the Swahili people, engage in tourism, fishing and farming.

Antartica Penguines

Penguins are unique birds in that they do not fly. Their wings are adapted as swimming flippers by their wing bones being flattened and rather solidly joined so that they are very useful for swimming (up to 30 miles per hour). Penguins often look like they are flying when viewed under water.


Most penguins spend the majority of their life at sea and return to land to reproduce. Getting to and from their reproductive areas (called rookeries) on land can be quite a walk but when there is snow to traverse, they often sled downhill to make quick descents.

On land, penguins walk (often in straight lines) to and from the ocean between their nesting colonies and their feeding grounds in the ocean (left). These trips can be only a few hundred yards over rocky beaches (like the picture above left) or they can be miles inland, often over snow and ice. Penguins tend to follow the same paths to and from the ocean to feed and bathe. When there is snow in their path they leave footprints (right).Most penguin species spend the year at sea without staying with their mate, returning each summer to their original breeding grounds and often to their original mate. The numbers of Antarctic penguins has been increasing over the years, a result perhaps of the decrease (from whaling) in the number of baleen whales visiting Antarctica. Without so many baleen whales (krill eaters) visiting Antarctica the krill population has increased and there is more food than ever before for the antarctic penguins.



There are 17 species of penguins on Earth, six of which can be found in Antarctica - three brush-tailed, (genus Pygoscelis) - the Adelie, chinstrap, and gentoo; one crested (genus Eudyptes) - the macaroni; and two species of Aptenodytes - the king and emperor.



Nest building - All but king and emperor penguins build a nest, though they are usually only a simple pile of stones that are continually stolen and swapped between the members of a colony. The nests are slightly higher than the surrounding land so that if the temperature rises and the snow melts, the nest is not flooded. Emperor and King penguins keep the egg and then the young chick on their feet covered by a brood pouch until they are large enough to regulate their own temperature.


Breeding Colonies - penguin colonies are very loud, raucous, busy and smelly affairs. The call of all penguins is as musical and gentle as a braying jackass and the whole colony is usually awash with penguin guano (posh word for bird poop). When I was in Antarctica one thing I did was help with long-term surveys which entailed walking through the colony (terribly frowned upon these days). Each nest is just over two pecking distances apart so the penguins can't reach each other. Of course walking through the middle meant that you were in range of everyone. I used to worry a lot about falling over in a penguin colony, covered from head to toe in guano and pecked mercilessly.



Reproduction: Colonies may be of just a handful of breeding pairs or up to half a million birds and more. Many species lay two eggs, though it is rare that two chicks are raised, if food is short it will be fed to the biggest and strongest only. Male and female parents share egg and chick duty. Chicks are fed regurgitated fish and krill (yum!). The chicks leave the nest (or parents feet) when they are large enough to keep their own temperature constant, they form crèches to give each other mutual support and protection from marauding skuas and also to protect against the cold and wind.

Golden Temple in amritsar

The Harmandir Sahib (or Hari Mandir) in Amritsar, Punjab, is the holiest shrine in Sikhism. Previously (and still more commonly) known as the Golden Temple, it was officially renamed Harmandir Sahib in March 2005. The temple (or gurdwara) is a major pilgrimage destination for Sikhs from all over the world, as well as an increasingly popular tourist attraction.

Unlike many historical sacred sites, the Golden Temple of Amritsar is still fully alive with religious fervor and sacredness, and visitors are welcomed to join in the experience. Although the building itself has great historical and architectural interest, it is the Golden Temple's great spiritual meaning for Sikh believers (and others) that is most memorable to visitors. In a country that is exceptionally rich with vibrant devotion, Frommer's rates the Golden Temple "the most tangibly spiritual place in the country."


History

Construction of the Golden Temple began in 1574 on land donated by the Mughal emperor Akbar. The building project was overseen by the fourth and fifth Sikh Gurus. The temple was completed in 1601, but restoration and embellishment continued over the years. The temple had to be substantially rebuilt after it was sacked in the 1760s.

In the early 19th century, 100 kg of gold were applied to the inverted lotus-shaped dome and decorative marble was added. All this gold and marble work took place under the patronage of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The legendary warrior king was a major donor of money and materials for the shrine and is remembered with much affection by the Sikh community and Punjabi people.

In June 1984, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi ordered an attack on armed Sikh militants holed up in the Golden Temple. Over 500 people were killed in the ensuing firefight, and Sikhs around the world were outraged at the desecration of their holiest site. Four months after the attack, Gandhi was assassinated by her two Sikh bodyguards, leading to a massacre followed in which thousands of Sikhs lost their lives.

The Sikh community refused to allow the central government to repair the damage to the temple, instead undertaking the work themselves. Although most of the damaged been repaired, the incident has not been forgotten. Many people in Amritsar are still anxious to explain the Sikh side of the story to visitors.

What to See

Despite its great sacred status, the Golden Temple is open to visitors, like all Sikh temples. The only restrictions are that visitors must not drink alcohol, eat meat or smoke in the shrine. And unlike many other Indian temples, visitors to the Harmandir Sahib are made to feel truly welcome and not pressured to buy anything. The information office left of the main gate gives helpful advice and information, as well as booklets on Sikhism.

Most visitors to the Golden Temple, whether Sikh or not, are humbled by what is quite simply the most tangibly spiritual place in the country. Arrive with a few good hours set aside and get lost in its magical beauty. Visitors must leave their shoes at the facility near the entrance, cover their head (bandanas are provided, or you can buy a souvenir bandana from a vendor), and wash their feet by wading through the shallow pool before entering.

The most famous and sacred part of the Golden Temple complex is the Hari Mandir (Divine Temple) or Darbar Sahib (Court of the Lord), which is the beautiful golden structure at the center of a large body of water. The gold-plated building features copper cupolas and white marble walls encrusted with precious stones arranged in decorative Islamic-style floral patterns. The structure is decorated inside and out with verses from the Granth Sahib (the Sikh holy book).

The water that surrounds the Hari Mandir is a sacred pool known as the Amrit Sarovar (Pool of Nectar). The temple is reached by following the Parikrama, which circumscribes the sacred pool in a clockwise direction. Connecting the pathway with the Hari Mandir is a marble causeway called the Guru's Bridge, which symbolizes the journey of the soul after death. The gateway to the bridge, the Darshani Deorhi, has magnificent silver doors.

The fascinating scene inside the Hari Mandir is televised throughout India for Sikh viewers. Amidst a crowd of fervent and solemn devotees, scriptures from the Holy Book are sung beneath a canopy studded with jewels. A chauri (whisk) is continually waved above the Book as lines of Sikhs pay their respects by touching their foreheads to the temple floor and walls, continuing in a clockwise direction at a relaxed pace.

Another major highlight of the Golden Temple complex is the Guru-ka-Langar, a dining hall where around 35,000 people a day are fed for free by temple volunteers. Everyone is invited to join this communal breaking of bread. All participants sit on the floor, regardless of caste, status, wealth or creed, powerfully symbolizing the central Sikh doctrine of the equality of all people.

Guest quarters are also available for international Sikh visitors (for a nominal fee), and at least 400 simple rooms are provided (free of charge) to Sikh pilgrims.

In the Central Sikh Museum at the main entrance, galleries display images and remembrances of Sikh gurus, warriors, and saints; it includes some graphic portraits of the torture and execution of gurus.

Festivals and Events

Every night, the Granth Sahib is carried in procession along this bridge to its "bed" in the Akal Takht, the seat of the Sikh parliament (built 1609). Called the Palki Sahib, this nightly ceremony provides a chance for all male pilgrims and visitors to actively participate in the veneration of the Holy Book. Lines form in front of and behind the heavy palanquin and each man shoulders the burden for a few seconds before passing it along, forming a human conveyer belt that allows everyone to participate and everyone to rest. The ceremony usually takes place at 11pm in summer at 9:30pm in winter.

Kalighat

Kalighat is located in the city of Calcutta on the banks of the river Hooghly (Bhagirathi). The name Calcutta is said to have been derived from the word Kalighat.

Kaali is regarded as one of the principal deities of Bengal. There are other temples to Kaali - Sahasrabhuja Kaali, Sarvamangala, Tarasundari and Simhavaahini. Kaali is regarded as the destroyer or liberator and is depicted in a fearful form. Despite the terrifying form, she is considered to deliver bliss to worshippers. The Kalighat temple attracts numerous devotees throughout the year.

Kalighat is regarded as one of the 52 Shakti Peethams of India, where the various parts of Sati's body are said to have fallen, in the course of Shiva's Rudra Tandava. Kalighat represents the site where the toes of the right foot of Shakti or Sati fell. (see Daksha Yagna).

The Temple: The Kalighat temple in its present form iis only about 200 years old, although it has been referred to in Mansar Bhasan composed in the 15th century, and in Kavi Kankan Chandi of the 17th century.

Legend has it that a devotee discovered a luminant ray of light coming from the Bhagirathi river bed, and upon investigating its source came upon a piece of stone carved in the form of a human toe. He also found a Syayambhu Lingam of Nakuleshwar Bhairav nearby, and started worshipping Kaali in the midst of a thick jungle. This shrine grew to its present form over a period of time, thanks in particular to the Sabarna Roy Chowdhury family of Bengal.

This family is also said to have built the Chitreswari Kaali temple at Chitpur. It is believed that there was a pathway through the jungle between Chitpur and Kalighat, and this pathway is said to have become the Chitpur road of Calcutta.

Kalighat is also associated with the worship offered to Kaali by a Dasanami Monk by name Chowranga Giri, and the Chowringee area of Calcutta is said to have been named after him.

The Dakshineswar Kaali temple across from the river, near Belur Math, bears an image of Kaali worshipped by the spiritual leader Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, guru of Swami Vivekananda.

Kerala is a paradise

Kerala is a green strip of land, in the South West corner of Indian peninsula. Kerala is one among the longest-lived, healthiest, most gender-equitable, and most literate regions outside of the developed countries. "Though Kerala is mostly a land of paddy-covered plains, statistically Kerala stands out as the Mount Everest of social development; there's truly no place like it." says noted environmentalist Bill McKibben.

Kerala, known as the 'God's Own Country' is one of the most beautiful places in the world. Known for its beautiful extensive backwaters and beautiful beaches, Kerala is one of the major tourist attractions in India. Nicknamed as one of the "10 paradises of the world" by the National Geographic traveller, Kerala is famous especially for its ecotourism initiatives. Its unique culture and traditions, coupled with its varied demography, has made it one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. Kerala is nominated as one among the three finalists at the World Travel and Tourism Council's ‘Tourism for Tomorrow’ awards in the destination category.

Kerala offers a wide range of Tourism possibilities. Nature tourism, Backwater Tourism, Monsoon Tourism, Eco Tourism Cultural Tourism and Health Tourism are the important forms of Tourism offered by Kerala. Herer we list the most imporant tourist spots of Kerala. These are the gem among all the tourist spots in Kerala. If you are planning to visit Kerala, make sure you don't miss any of these.

Thailand beaches

The beaches of Thailand are the main reason many people come. While they all pretty much have white sand, calm seas and warm water, there are also lots of variations to choose from. Which one is the best? Well, it's all really a matter of taste. As beaches go, the north end of Chaweng Beach on Samui is one of our all time favorites. However, Samui is probably one of the most expensive destinations in Thailand, with very little to see and do away from the beach.
Phuket is one of Thailand's most developed beach resorts. That means there's a wide range of accommodations in all price categories, as well as a few more distractions once you leave the beach. But, that high level of "could-be-anywhere" development is because there are a lot of tourists to serve. Phuket is not the place to "get away from it all."

In the end, our personal favorite is the little known provincial town of Songkhla in the deep south. The beach is rather "wild", with the occasional rock outcrop, but it's natural wind-swept beauty is precisely why it appeals. Few tourists frequent this part of Thailand, yet there are many interesting sights around town as well as further afield.
Of course, there's no point in going to the beach if it's going to rain. All of Thailand is subject to the seasonal monsoon cycle, but it peaks in different destinations at different times. See our Phuket vs Samui weather chart for a simple comparison of the seasonal rainfall averages for two of the most popular destinations.

Places to visit in nepal

Are you ready for some high altitude adventure with in a soul-warming environment? Then pack your bags and experience some of the most majestic peaks, most exhilarating torrents and wonderful people Nepal has to offer. Here are some places you may want to visit when go.

1.) Katmandu

Find your inner peace in the streets of Nepal's capital and cultural center. You can walk on the streets of this once inaccessible city and experience the culture, the people, the history, and the faith Nepal had embraced, imbibed, and relived for centuries. Katmandu is also one of the Nepal's starting points in activities like trekking, rafting and other sports.

2.) Royal Chitwan National Park

If you want to experience some jungle adventure with the elephants and ravaging rapids, you may want to stop by Nepal's Royal Chitwan Park. Covering some 932 sq kilometers, this national park serves as a home for 450 species of birds, 45 species of reptiles and amphibians, and 43 species of mammals. One can also enjoy guided jungle walks, terai culture, wild life breeding project, and safari drives inside 4WD cars.

3.) Nagarkot

Located 32 kilometers east of Katmandu, Nagarkot is a great place to visit if you want to see how beautiful and majestic the Himalayan Mountain range can be. A lookout tower in Nagarkot, for one, enables visitor to have a 360-degree scenic view of the Katmandu valley and Himalayan Mountain peaks. Drive up the city, book for a hotel, wake up early, and experience a different kind of sunrise with cool winds blowing every word away.

4.) Pokhara

Located some 200 kilometers west of Kathmandu, this enchanting city is the rally point for trekking and rafting destination. Pokhara offers perfect scenery and gripping natural beauty not only for those who looks for fun but also for those seeking solace. Be it the preview of the Himalayan Mountain range, a row in Phewa Lake, a trek beside Seti Gandaki River and Devi's Fall, or a peek to the Mahendra Cave, a trip to Pokhara is a experience worth the journey.

5.) Pashupatinath Temple

Four kilometers east of Katmandu lies a temple of immeasurable sacredness for Hindu people - the Pashupatinath. Hindu believes that dying and being cremated in Pashupatinath and having one's ashes scattered in Bagmati River will give a Hindu salvation and release from the cycles of birth and rebirth. Have a peek of Hindus life, death and tradition by visiting this holy ground.

6.) Patan

Art lovers and enthusiasts should always put a stop in Patan in their Nepalese trip itinerary. Patan is the oldest city in the Ksthmandu valley and is the home for Nepalese architecture, arts, traditions, and crafts drawing mainly from religious customs. Walk around the city and feel as if you're walking inside an open museum.

7.) Wildlife Reserve of Koshi Tappu

Sprawling some 175 km2 near the River of Sapta-Koshi in Eastern Nepal, Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve is the best place to watch native and migratory birds in action. Thousands of birds converge in this area, especially during the months of January, February and March. The trip which normally includes jungle walks, jeep drives, and boat rides, coupled with treks to Bhutan and Sikkim or rafting trip in Sunkosi will make any Nepalese trip an unforgettable experience.

8.) Lumbini

Lumbini is the perfect place to go to if you are into cultural, archaeological and religious treasures. With the number of stupa, meditation grounds temples, courtyards and more, a walk in Lumbini is a walk with Buddha. Enter the birthplace of one of the greatest man of world religions - Siddharta Gautama, founder of Buddhism - and be captivated by its serene environment and meditate and reflect with its outmost tranquility and peaceful atmosphere.

9.) Bhaktapur

Bhaktapur is an ancient town east of Katmandu in the Katmandu Valley. Experience Nepalese life as it happens in this city by enjoying the scenery in Bhaktapur Durbar Square and Potter's square. Make your trip complete with a taste of Khopa Dhau, Bhaktapur's home-made curd.

10.) Royal Bardia National Park

Located in Western Terai, Royal Bardia National Park is the largest park in the region with 968 km2. It serves as a sanctuary for tigers, small and large mammals, deer, reptiles, birds, and a herd of the last known elephants in captivity. Enjoy wildlife as it happens along with short rafting in Karnali and Bheri as well as trekking to Dolpo and Rara lake.

Melbourne city

It is situated at the head of Port Phillip Bay and the mouth of the Yarra River. The area was discovered by Europeans in 1802 and incorporated into the colony of New South Wales. The first permanent settlement was founded in 1835 by settlers from Tasmania, and in 1837 it was named for the British prime minister, Lord Melbourne. The city was made the capital of Victoria in 1851, and it grew rapidly with the gold rush of the early 1850s. It served as the first capital of the Australian commonwealth (1901–27), until Canberra became the new capital. Second in size to Sydney, it is an industrial, commercial, and financial centre and the seat of several universities, including the University of Melbourne.

The landscape
THE CITY SITE
Metropolitan Melbourne is situated at the northern end of Port Phillip Bay, 30 nautical miles (55 km) from the bay’s narrow entrance. Most of the flat terrain is less than 390 feet (120 metres) above sea level. The expansion of Melbourne from its origins at the mouth of the Yarra River to its present shape displays a strong correlation with the geology and drainage of the land. West of the original city site, basalt flows during the Cenozoic Era (i.e., the last 65 million years) filled the existing valleys and left flat, uniform plains. The eastern region, however, consists of undulating and dissected beds of sandstones, shales, and conglomerates laid down in the Silurian and Devonian periods (about 445 to 360 million years ago). The thicker soils of the eastern region, together with its higher annual rainfall, supported a much denser cover of trees than on the basalt plains. Not surprisingly, the development of Melbourne has been mainly eastward into the broad reaches of land between Darebin Creek, the Plenty and Yarra rivers, and Koonung and Gardiners creeks. In a strikingly asymmetrical fashion, Melbourne’s urban development presently lines the entire eastern shore of Port Phillip Bay, from the mouth of the Yarra River to Point Nepean, 60 miles (97 km) distant, while corresponding development on the west coast of the bay extends for only 10 miles (16 km).

climate

Melbourne’s weather results from the eastward flow of high-pressure cells separated by low-pressure troughs. These patterns follow a course that passes south of the continent in summer and over northern Victoria in winter. The annual rainfall of 26 inches (660 mm) is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year, with October usually the wettest month and January the driest. Temperatures are moderate, only rarely falling below freezing; average daily maximum temperatures vary from 55 °F (13 °C) in July to 79 °F (26 °C) in January. Winds associated with the eastward passage of weather systems ensure that Melbourne is spared the serious of some other large cities.

THE CITY LAYOUT

The area of original settlement in Melbourne, which today forms its financial, legal, administrative, and ecclesiastical heart, was laid out in a rectangular pattern that has not changed. The area has a frontage along the Yarra River. Within this core are the major suburban and interstate railway stations, Victoria’s Houses of Parliament, the Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, arts and entertainment venues, museums, the Law Courts, the State Library, and many financial institutions, including the Melbourne Stock Exchange and the headquarters of major banks. Central to this area are two major destinations, Bourke and Swanston streets, which have been transformed into pedestrian malls, closed to automobile traffic. Most of the city’s buildings are modern, but the Town Hall, the Law Courts, and the Exhibition Building provide excellent examples of 19th-century official architecture. The city is divided into 14 precincts, sectors identified by ethnic concentration, commercial clusters, or attractions.

The people

PATTERNS OF IMMIGRATION

The first official census of Melbourne, in 1836, numbered 177 persons, of whom 35 were females. In the 1850s the gold rush in nearby areas of Victoria sparked the city’s first major period of immigration. Newcomers came principally from other Australian colonies and Britain. By the 1920s Melbourne had become the home of more than half the residents of Victoria, and toward the end of World War II it reached a population of 1,000,000. This trend continued throughout the 20th century. By 2000 the Melbourne metropolitan area comprised nearly three-fourths of Victoria’s population.

MOVE TO THE SUBURBS

In the 1940s about 90 percent of Melbourne’s residents lived within 10 miles (16 km) of the central business district. This proportion fell to less than 50 percent by the 1980s as the outer suburban areas grew correspondingly. By 1966 the population of the Melbourne area had exceeded two million, and the city limits were rapidly being pushed eastward. The migrants from southern Europe were at first concentrated in the older industrial suburbs, where they found lower rents and nearby job opportunities. In those areas support was available from earlier immigrants and the associations they had established. As these people prospered, they embraced the Australian dream of owning a home on a quarter-acre plot and began to move to the outer suburbs. By the mid-1990s the area’s population had surpassed the three million mark. By the end of the 20th century, however, the trend of moving to the suburbs had begun to reverse itself. The central city became increasingly residential as many aging buildings were rehabilitated and repurposed as housing. Melbourne’s suburbs, on the whole, represent a fairly even mixture of and occupations, although some western sections can be typified as working-class districts.

The economy

INDUSTRY AND TRADE

That Melbourne dominates the economic life of Victoria is not surprising—the city contains the bulk of the state’s population. It is Victoria’s financial centre and seat of government and is at the hub of the communications network linking the state to the rest of Australia and the world.

The city’s original core offers the most employment, but employment is growing at a faster rate in the outer suburbs. The central city mainly holds service activities such as banking, insurance, retailing, entertainment, public accommodation, and railway transportation. Surrounding this core is an incomplete ring of inner industrial suburbs, where the first clothing and metal factories were established in the 19th century. In the outer suburbs, particularly to the east, small manufacturing areas began to develop after World War II, when these suburbs could offer large areas of inexpensive land, few problems of traffic congestion, and an increasing population.

TRANSPORTATION

Melbourne is well served by an integrated public transportation system of electric trains, buses, and tramcars, the latter a signature sight in the city. A network of national highways links Melbourne with adjoining states, and a system of freeways was greatly upgraded in the 1990s, including the creation of the Western Ring Road as a bypass route. The City Link project joined three major freeways with a bridge, tunnels, highway extensions, and interchanges to facilitate traffic movement. An underground rail loop serves the central business district. Melbourne’s international and domestic airport is located at Tullamarine, 14 miles (23 km) northwest of the city’s centre.

Administration and social conditions

GOVERNMENT

The Victoria state government has the ultimate responsibility for Melbourne’s major planning decisions and for providing its principal health, educational, and transport services. Local government in the Melbourne Statistical Division is provided by more than 30 entities. Councillors, led by a lord mayor, are elected under a system of compulsory voting conducted by mail. Councillors receive a stipend and represent the city at large. The councils pass local ordinances and control a number of services connected with building regulations, community welfare, garbage collection, and vehicle parking. Revenue for these purposes is raised by property taxes (rates).

HEALTH AND EDUCATION

Since the system of free public hospitals was started in 1846, it has grown to encompass numerous special facilities, which deal with either particular ailments or categories of patients, as well as general hospitals. There are, in addition, many private hospitals.

The University of Melbourne, one of the oldest in Australia, was established in 1853 (though the first students were admitted in 1855); Monash and La Trobe universities were established in the 1960s, and Deakin University, established in 1974, maintains three campuses. Melbourne also has colleges of advanced education that offer degrees or diplomas in a variety of technical and academic subjects.

Cultural life

ARTS

Melbourne’s already rich cultural life was greatly enhanced during the period between 1968 and 1984, when the Victorian Arts Centre was created on the south bank of the Yarra River close to the city’s centre. It encompasses the National Gallery of Victoria, the Melbourne Concert Hall, and several theatres, among other facilities for the arts.

The National Gallery of Victoria was originally opened in 1861 and moved to its present site in the arts centre in 1968. It houses several outstanding collections, including, most notably, Australian art ranging from the colonial period to modern times; European art, with 18th-century works particularly well represented; and .

RECREATION

Automobile license plates in Victoria carry the identification “Victoria—Garden State.” Melbourne is worthy as the capital of a garden state, with more than one-fourth of its inner-city area consisting of public parks and reserves. These spaces were set aside in the mid-19th century, at a time when many civic leaders in other cities were concerned with commercial development rather than with the quality of life. Extensive tracts have also been allotted as parklands in the newer outer suburbs.

The most famous park in Melbourne is the Royal Botanic Gardens (RBG). This area of 89 acres (36 hectares) was established in 1846 and today contains lakes, lawns, and thousands of named trees and shrubs. The associated National Herbarium of Victoria, which houses a collection of 1,200,000 pressed plant specimens, is internationally recognized and used by scholars. The RBG also maintains a separate 200-acre (80-hectare) facility at Cranbourne, about 30 miles (48 km) southeast of central Melbourne.

History

Early settlement

Port Phillip Bay was discovered by Europeans in 1802, when Lieutenant John Murray and Captain Matthew Flinders visited the bay within a few months of each other. This area was then part of the colony of New South Wales, and the colony’s governor, Philip Gidley King, instructed the surveyor-general, Charles Grimes, to examine the shores of the bay with a view to identifying sites for future settlement. In 1803 Grimes and his party discovered the Yarra River and traveled along its lower course. Unlike some members of the party, Grimes was not enthusiastic about the Yarra River as a potential settlement. Later in the same year Captain arrived with a contingent of soldiers and convicts and settled near Sorrento, just inside the entrance to the bay on the east coast. Within a few months, however, he decided that the location was unsuitable and moved his group to Tasmania.

Growth of the city

Melbourne capitalized on its central position within Victoria and its port facilities to capture most of the region’s trade. Between 1856 and 1873, railways were built to Geelong, Ballarat, Bendigo, Echuca, and Wodonga, and in 1883 a link with the New South Wales rail system was established at Albury. In 1877 the Melbourne Harbour Trust was created, and the Coode Canal was cut in the soft alluvial sediments of the lower Yarra River to provide a more direct course free from silting problems.

During the 1870s manufacturing flourished under the protection of a high tariff, and progress in most spheres continued until 1889, when a financial crisis and the collapse of many firms lowered public confidence. The following decade witnessed a severe economic depression that began with a maritime strike and the failure of a number of banks and was sealed by seven years of drought from 1895 to 1902. In the decade before 1891 the population of Melbourne had increased by 200,000; in the following decade it rose by only 6,000.

In the early years of the 20th century, confidence gradually revived. Australia became a commonwealth, and Melbourne served as its federal capital until 1927, when Canberra was established. World Wars I and II encouraged the growth of manufacturing, and after 1945 European immigrants began to arrive in significant numbers.

After 1971 Melbourne’s rate of growth slackened as immigration declined, and economic conditions worsened through the 1970s and early ’80s. Nevertheless, during this period of slower population growth a number of major changes took place. The appearance of the inner city was transformed by the replacement of old buildings with multistory office structures and hotels. The system of arterial roads was improved dramatically. Several important suburban economic areas emerged, reducing the retail and industrial importance of the city’s centre. And the cultural life of the city was immeasurably enlivened by the completion of the Victorian Arts Centre. The revitalization of central Melbourne continued after 1990 as the residential population grew and the massive Docklands development project began to transform the long-neglected waterfront area into a spectacular urban showplace.

Durban

Durban is a sophisticated cosmopolitan city of over three million people - a city where east meets west - a city beneath which beats the pulse of Africa - city known as the home of Africa's best managed, busiest port.

Durban is an exciting city in which to play, shop, experience the nightlife and to relax. It's a city in which business and debate issues, which have far-reaching effects, not only on Africa but way beyond its borders, are discussed.


The world-class International Convention Centre Durban has hosted an historic line-up of events including conferences of a global scale.

Leisure facilities abound in Durban. Visit uShaka Marine World, Wilson's Wharf on the Victoria Embankment and the nearby BAT centre. Enjoy fine and traditional dining, entertainment and shopping in scenic surroundings. Shop till you drop in modern shopping malls. Grey Street and the Warwick Triangle boast vibrant locals shops and markets. Beachfront stalls sell traditional arts and crafts. Enjoy the excellent entertainment on offer at the city's theatres and clubs or take a township tour.

If it's peace and sheer beauty you are after, make for Durban's nature sanctuaries or parks. The Botanical Gardens are of particular interest - ask about their 'Music by the Lake' evenings - wonderful music played by KZN's Philharmonic Orchestra in wonder surrounds.

Sail, swim, run, and play tennis or alternatively stroll along or relax on the sun-drenched beaches watching the world go by. Durban the Playground of the Zulu Kingdom.

Table Mountain

Since the first person laid eyes on Table Mountain, it has exerted its powerful and charismatic pull, enchanting and drawing any and all who fall under its spell.

The way to the top has never been easy, and for many centuries only a handful of bold and enterprising people could say that they had climbed it.

By the late 1870's, several of Cape Towns more prominent (and possibly less fit) citizens had suggested the introduction of a railway line to the top. Plans to implement a proposed rack railway got under way but the outbreak of the Anglo-Boer war put a halt to the plans. By 1912, with a strong desire to gain easy access to the top of Table Mountain, the Cape Town City Council commissioned an engineer to investigate the various options of transport to the top. The engineer, a Mr. H.M. Peter, suggested that a funicular railway running up from Oranjezicht through Platteklip gorge would be the most suitable option. A vote was held with the vast majority of Cape Town's residents voting in favour. This in spite of its cost a staggering (in 1913) 100000 Pounds.


The Table Mountain project was delayed yet again by war; this time the outbreak of the First World War (1914-1918). The plan was resuscitated in 1926 after a Norwegian engineer, Trygve Stromsoe, presented plans for a cableway to the top of Table Mountain. The plan caught the collective eye of a group of eminent local businessmen. The idea that an easy route up would finally become a reality drew them together, forming the Table Mountain Aerial Cableway Company (TMACC) to finance the construction. Work began soon afterwards and the project was finished relatively quickly. On the 4th of October 1929, the Mayor of Cape Town, Rev A J S Lewis, headed the official opening ceremony that was attended by over 200 other guests.

Since it's opening in 1929, over 16 million people have taken the trip to the top of Table Mountain. The Table Mountain cableway has since become something of a landmark in Cape Town, and has carried some of Cape Town's most illustrious visitors including King George VI and Queen Elizabeth II, as well as Oprah Winfrey, Sting, Stefi Graf, Arnold Schwarzenneger, Magaret Thatcher, Prince Andrew, Micheal Schumacher, Brooke Shields, Micheal Buble, Tina Turner, Jackie Chan, Dolores O'Riordan, Skunk Anansie and Paul Oakenfold. In 1993, Dennis Hennessy, the son of one of the founders of TMACC sold the company. The new directors immediately set about planning an upgrade to the existing Table Mountain infrastructure. Apart from upgrading the restaurants and machinery, new cars were purchased. Unlike their predecessors, the new cars, or Rotairs, have a revolving floor that allows passengers a 360-degree view of the city and Table Mountain as they travel. Work on the upgrade began in January of 1997 and, for several months cranes and large helicopters carrying building materials dominated the mountain skyline. The new cableway was officially opened on the 4th of October 1997, the anniversary of the original launch, almost 70 years previously.


The Table Mountain Aerial Cableway Company celebrated its 79th anniversary in 2008 and remains the most popular tourist attraction in Cape Town!

Facilities & Additional Details

THE RESTAURANT
The self-service restaurant at the top of Table Mountain offers a wide range of foods ranging from our hot breakfast, the hot meal of the day, snack menus and coffee bar. Meals may be complemented by a selection of fine local wines. The restaurant seats 120 people. Please follow the signs once you're on top.

CABLEWAY COCKTAIL BAR
Watch the sun set over Camps Bay and the twinkling lights of the Mother City. Sit and linger over one of our special cocktails while looking out over the bay and Table Mountain. Up to 120 people can be hosted for cocktail parties. The Cableway Cocktail Bar is situated inside the top station building.

OPENING HOURS
The cableway opens at 08h00 in the summer months (16 September to 30 April) and at 08h30 in winter (1 May to 15 September). Cable cars depart every 10-15 minutes. Closing hours vary depending on the time of the year, but in peak season (16 December to 15 January) the last cable car ascends at 21h00 and descends at 22h00.

CABLEWAY PRICES
R145 return or R74 one way per adult, R76 return or R38 one way per child (under 18).
Discounts are available for South African students and senior citizens, as well as for families and Wild Card holders. Prices are subject to change without prior notice, so please check beforehand.

CONTACT TABLE MOUNTAIN AERIAL CABLEWAY COMPANY
Phone +27 (0)21 424-0015 for general enquiries or +27 (0)21 424-8181 for the weatherline.
Please note that as the cableway is weather dependent, it is not possible to book in advance. Tickets can be purchased at the lower station ticket office, on the day of your visit.

Garden Route

Garden Route Travel Guide / The Garden Route includes one of the most beautiful stretches of coastline, whose starting point is constantly contested as towns such as Witsand, Stilbaai and Albertinia join the route that winds its way for some 200 km via George, Wilderness, Sedgefield and Knysna on to Plettenberg Bay and culminating in the Tstisikamma Forest - a fairyland of giant trees, ferns and bird life.

Mountains crowd close to a shoreline dotted with beaches and bays, and vividly coloured wild flowers delight the eye. Between Heidelberg and Storms River, the Garden Route runs parallel to a coastline featuring lakes, mountains, tall indigenous forests, amber -coloured rivers and golden beaches. Meandering trails are followed by hikers, the forests invite long, leisurely drives, and the lakes and rivers lend themselves to swimming boating and fishing. A wide range of leisure options, spectacular scenery and a mild climate guarantee an unforgettable holiday experience when visiting the Garden Route in South Africa.


The region provides a stirring study in contrasts. The delightful town of George, known as "The Gateway to the Garden Route", graces a coastal plateau in a fertile area of lush greenery at the foot of the Outeniqua Mountains. Oudtshoorn, "Capital of the Klein Karoo", is set in a semi-arid valley, providing the ideal habitat for ostriches which are farmed here on a grand scale. The Garden Route stretches on the southern coast from Heidelberg to the Tsitsikamma Forest and Storms River. It’s a nook of the country that offers inspiration to writers and artists whose presence gives the Garden Route a trendy flavour. It is also a top priority of many a foreign visitor. The coastal drive links a series of charming towns interspersed with natural beauty. Along the way, every kind of adventure activity is possible; scuba diving, abseiling, fishing and more. The Tsitsikamma National Park, perched on a tumultuous Indian Ocean shore is one of South Africa’s most dramatic protected areas, combining marine and land attractions. Its indigenous forests are a haven for birdlife. One of the most geologically interesting parts of South Africa is the Klein Karoo, with its towering mountains and sheer gorges.

An important geological feature is the Cango Caves, a series of caverns and chambers naturally hewn out of limestone, situated outside the city of Oudtshoorn. The Cango Caves are among the top ten most visited South African attractions. Oudtshoorn itself, the heart of the ostrich feather industry when it was in its hey day the late 1800s and early 1900s, is well worth a visit. The grandiose, old feather palaces are still to be seen, while ostrich farms, now involved in the commercial production of meat, leather, eggs and feathers, can be toured, with the possibility of riding an ostrich.

Knysna

The picturesque town of Knysna nestles on the shores of the Knysna Lagoon. It is only 5 hours drive from Cape Town and two and a half hours from Port Elizabeth, the ideal spot from which to explore the splendours of the Garden Route.

The 18 square kilometre Knysna lagoon is home to the unique Knysna seahorse, delicate pansy shell and at least 200 species of fish. The lagoon is actually an estuary, since the Knysna river meets the Indian Ocean here between two sandstone cliffs known as the Knysna Heads. On the Western Head is the Featherbed Nature Reserve, a World Heritage site. Here visitors can join a 2,5 km guided nature walk, the Bushbuck Trail.

The lagoon itself is surrounded by beautiful landscape and forest, making it particularly attractive for recreational, tourist and commercial activities. These include angling, diving, camping, canoeing, swimming, boating and commercial oyster cultivation. South Africa's largest commercial oyster farming centre is based here.

The indigenous forests of Knysna are the largest close-canopy forests in southern Africa and home to the elusive Cape Bush elephant. Sheltered within this green canopy are majestic Outeniqua Yellowwood trees, Stinkwood, Blackwood, White alder, Ironwood and Hard pear tree species. Birdwatching enthusiasts can enjoy the colourful Knysna Loerie and Narina Trogon that grace the wooded ecosystem.

The town of Knysna boasts a variety of eating establishments and shops specialising incrafts and wooden furniture made from indigenous timbers. An architectural mix of Cape Dutch, 19th Century English and contemporary styles create an atmosphere unique to the town. This is brought to life by the community of artists and craftspeople that have settled here, providing a kaleidoscope of colour and a feast for the senses.

Knysna plays host to various annual festivals and sporting events. These include the Knysna Oyster festival, Nederburg Arts Festival, Sparrebosch Triathlon, Rotary Mountainbike Tour and 21 km Knysna Forest Marathon. Golfing enthusiasts have a choice of two 18-hole golf courses in Knysna or further afield in Plettenberg Bay and George.

The Outeniqua area around Knysna has numerous day trails and longer overnight hikes. TheOuteniqua Choo Choo is one of the last operational narrow gauge steam trains in the world and travels between Knysna and George.

Stellenbosch

Stellenbosch has a lot to offer for its inhabitants and guests alike, Stellenbosch has a small-town aura with a leisurely lifestyle in an atmosphere where art, music and theatre reign. Yet Stellenbosch is only half-an-hour's drive from the Mother City of Cape Town... where else could one find this quality of life?

Stellenbosch is home to one of the oldest universities in South Africa. For the students, in addition to the buzz of campus life, the academic stimulation, and the sports facilities surrounded by mountain scenery, there are the sidewalk cafés and friendly meet-and-eat pubs - all within walking distance.

Stellenbosch is so centrally located in the region that it is the ideal base from which to explore the Cape Town, Cape Peninsula, Whale Route and West Coast. Save yourself some headaches and avoid traffic, high-ways and city crowds and gain some quality time with family and friends.

Apart from all the wonderful wine estates, most of the accommodation establishments and restaurants like Keren’s Vine guesthouse are also privately owned and managed - promising you a personal and pampered experience during your stay in Stellenbosch.

Stellenbosch is home to many well known artists and crafters of note. A wealth of local products - art, craft, jewelers, boutiques, deli's etc. can be found and enjoyed.

If you are keen to play golf in a setting close to paradise: Stellenbosch is the hub of a golfers paradise with three 18 hole, championship, golf courses in the town itself where the pristine beauty of the area makes for a perfect day out. Within 20 to 45 minutes drive there are a further 10 top quality golf courses of world class standard. For the keen golfer, this is a true paradise where top class golf can be combined with great food and excellent wine, all at value for money prices.

Tuscany

It's impossible to divorce Tuscany from our preconceptions. A row of cypress trees breaking the blue sky on a rolling hilltop. Olive groves and grapevines marching tidily down the side of a slope. Little medieval hill towns gazing down upon a country that has been carefully cultivated since the time of the Romans. It has been said indeed, that rather than take a photo of the modern landscape, you can gaze into a painting by Michelangelo, Donatello, Raphael or Piero della Francesca. Much of the scenery is simply unchanged in 500 years.

Where to start with Tuscany though? We have the 'art cities' of Florence, Pisa and Siena - the galleries and museums, devotional buildings and architecture of Florence (Firenze) alone could swallow your entire vacation in Tuscany. Another week would just about deal with Pisa and its Campo dei Miracoli around the Leaning Tower and Baptistery. There is lesser known Lucca, a perfect medieval city within its unbreached medieval walls. But let's take a few other highlights without which no tour of Tuscany is complete.

Siena is a superb medieval city, which depopulated a few hundred years ago due to the Black Death and never quite filled up again. Indeed parts of this opulent and stylish town, around the stunning black-and-white marble Duomo, retain a semi-rural air. Cobbled streets spiral toward the central 'Campo' site of the twice yearly Palio horse race. There are dozens of little hill towns south and west of Siena, with San Gimignano (the city of towers) being best known. Montepulciano, Cortona and Pienza are joys, but also see lesser-explored Pitigliano, Massa Marittima and Volterra.

Between Florence and Siena we have Chianti, superb wine country of course and a popular retreat for British and American expats. The main towns of 'Chiantishire' are Greve in Chianti and Radda in Chianti. See too the medieval cloth town of Prato, with the Castello Imperator and a fine Pisan-Romanesque Duomo. Another undiscovered gem is Pistoia, with a well preserved medieval core. Heading towards the coast we have Pisa, Lucca and then the coastline of the Versilian Riviera. The most famous of the resorts is Viareggio, a fashionable resort in Victorian times, and still a fun seaside town, with great gelaterie, restaurants, beaches (though you will have to pay) and the huge February carnival. Livorno (or Leghorn as Brits dubbed it) is often dismissed as a bombed and uninspiringly rebuilt port town, but there is a lovely old town of canals and humpback bridges, a 'little Venice' indeed. Offshore we have the isle of Elba, once home to a defeated Napoleon.

The southern Tuscan coast becomes the Maremma, once a malaria-ridden backwater but now home to the famed Maremma cattle and the 'butteri', cowboys who tend them. The countryside rises to the hills of Monte Argentario and the rather lovely and very ancient town of Orbetello. South of Siena we come to the remarkable San Gimignano, a little town that became a powerful republic, albeit briefly. The soaring towers are monuments to the pride and hubris of the warring families of the town. Volterra is something quite other - built remote and striking on a high plateau, DH Lawrence wrote that it 'gets all the wind and sees all the world ... an inland island'. Thence on to Massa Marittima, an important mining town since pre-Roman (Etruscan) times. And south of Siena spreads the countryside of the Crete Senese ... which is probably that Tuscan countryside that most of us first-time visitors picture in our minds.

We can't leave southern Tuscany without visiting the Abbazia dei San Galgano, one of Italy's most stunning Gothic buildings, and the Abbazia di Monte Oliveto Maggiore, with its superb Renaissance frescoes. On to Montepulciano, at 600 metres above the sea it's the highest hill town in Tuscany. Then to Pienza, a Renaissance new town created from scratch by Pius II in 1459. Another lovely hill town nearby is Montalcino - wine buffs will know the name.


Eastern Tuscany's main towns are Arezzo - a beautiful Etruscan, Roman and medieval city, and the home and inspiration of movie clown Roberto Benigni (much of 'La Vita e Bella' was filmed here). Finally on to Cortona, from whose heights you gaze down upon Lake Trasimeno. The town has the Museo dell'Accademia Etrusca, a fine Duomo and the Museo Diocesano.

Whether you're looking for Tuscany villas, Bed and Breakfast, Tuscany vacation rental, holiday homes or farm holidays, or perhaps a Tuscany wedding planner ... look no further. We've been building our stable of superb Tuscan holiday accommodation for the last ten years ... whatever you want, it's here.

The Italian Riviera

Genoa, Italy's principal seaport, is easy to reach by public transportation. There's a small airport, ferries come into and out of its harbor, and its a main rail hub easily reached from France, Milan, Turin, Pisa, and Rome. The city makes a good base or starting point for exploring the first villages on our Italian Riviera travel itinerary.
Genoa's historic center is said to be the largest medieval quarter in Europe and has a wealth of churches, palaces, and museums. There are many good restaurants, shops, and Europe's second largest aquarium.

Join us for a look at the Italian Riviera between Genoa and Tuscany. The itinerary includes Genoa and La Spezia provinces of Liguria (see the Liguria Interactive Map below).

Statue of Liberty

Design
The statue was designed by a young French sculptor, Frédéric-Auguste Bartholdi, who was striving to build a statue like the great Colossus that once stood at the Greek island Rhodes.


The statue's face was modeled after his mother's and the story goes that the body was modeled after a prostitute.
The crown of Lady Liberty, as the statue is often affectionately called, has seven spikes, symbolizing the Seven Seas across which liberty should be spread. In her left hand she holds a tablet with the Declaration of Independence and in her right hand a torch, symbolizing Enlightenment.

Construction

Statue of Liberty
under construction
The statue's steel framework was made by French engineer Gustave Eiffel, better known as the man behind the Eiffel Tower in Paris. Thanks to an ingenious construction consisting of copper plates attached to the metal framework, the statue is flexible enough to withstand heavy storms. Large iron bars attach the framework to a central pylon.

The Statue of Liberty was constructed in Paris, France. It took nine years before it was completed in 1884 after which it was sent to the USA in 214 crates. Even before the arrival of the statue, Bartholdi himself had traveled to the Unites States to discuss the location of the statue with president Ulysses S. Grant. Eventually it was decided tot erect the statue at a small island in the harbor of New York City. Today the island is known as Liberty Island.

The biggest and most embarrassing problem was the construction of the pedestal, which had to be paid for by the Americans themselves.
The statue's torch was displayed in Madison Square park for six years - from 1876 until 1882 - in an attempt to spark interest and attract funds. But it was only after publisher Joseph Pulitzer published the names of those who
Liberty Island
donated money for the project that the funds started flowing in. Eventually, the statue was erected 10 years late, in 1886, when it was officially inaugurated by president Grover Cleveland.

The Statue
The Statue of Liberty is 46,5 meter (151ft) high and together with the pedestal it reaches 93 meter (305ft). You can take the staircase inside the statue and walk all the way up the 354 steps to the crown from where you have a nice view over New York City.

If you want to enter either the pedestal or the monument's crown it is best to reserve tickets well in advance. For more info on how to get tickets to enter the Statue of Liberty, take a look at this website.

Effel Tower

* The Eiffel tower is one of the most fantastic structures ever constructed. Even today it is visited by people from around the world. As a matter of fact, approximately 200 million people have come to see the Eiffel Tower.

 The Eiffel tower was created 1887-1889 by Alexandre Gustave Eiffel. The month of the completion of the Eiffel tower is March 28, 89. It took 2 years 2 months and 5 days to complete it.

    * Only one worker was killed in building the Eiffel Tower.

    * It was created to celebrate the anniversary of the French revolution. 

    *After the celebration it was saved from being demolished by being turned into a radio transmitter. As it has gotten older pavilions, an elevator, and other structures on the first and second floor. They have also added covers to protect people from rain.

    *It is made of 9441 tons of steel.  A total of 984 ft. ( 324 m) tall and has 18038 individual pieces. The iron used to make the Eiffel tower was made at the factories of Mr. Dupont and Mr. Fould.   

    * It is made of 4 base legs that are 80 meters apart from each other and are each 50 meters above the ground.

    * The Eiffel tower has been painted 6 different colors in its history. All of the different colors were shades of brown. It takes 50 tons of paint to paint the Eiffel tower.

    *A total of 50 engineers made  5300 blueprints. 121 workers worked at the construction site to build it.

Ellora Caves

The Ellora Caves are an impressive complex of Buddhist, Hindu and Jain cave temples built between the 6th and 10th centuries AD near the ancient Indian village of Ellora. The caves have a slightly less dramatic setting than those at Ajanta, but more exquisite sculptures. Ellora is a World Heritage Site and the most visited ancient monument in Maharashtra State.


History

The caves at Ellora were carved out of the vertical face of the Charanandri hills between the 6th and 10th centuries. The carving work began around 550 AD, about the same time the Ajanta Caves (100km northeast) were abandoned.

The Ellora Caves were built at time when Buddhism was declining in India and Hinduism was beginning to reassert itself. The Brahmanical movement was especially powerful under the patronage of the Chalukya and Rashtrakuta kings, who oversaw most of the work at Ellora - including the magnificent Kailasa Temple built in the 700s.

The last period of building activity took place in the 10th century, when the local rulers switched allegiance from Shaivism (Hinduism devoted to Shiva) to the Digambara sect of Jainism.

The coexistence of structures from three different religions serve as a splendid visual representation of the prevalent religious tolerance of India. For this reason and others, the Ellora Caves were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983.

What to See

There are 34 caves in all: 12 Buddhist caves (500-750 AD), 17 Hindu caves (600-870 AD) and 5 Jain caves (800-1000 AD). The caves are numbered roughly chronologically, starting with the oldest Buddhist caves at the south end.

The Buddhist Caves

The Buddhist caves (also called Vishvakarma caves) are the earliest of the Ellora Caves, dating from 500 to 750 AD. All except Cave 10 are viharas (monasteries), which were used for study, meditation, communal rituals, eating and sleeping.

The caves become steadily larger and more elaborately decorated as they progress to the north, which scholars have explained by the growing need to compete with Hinduism for patronage. The earliest Hindu caves at Ellora date from 600 AD, right in the middle of the Buddhist period.

Cave 1 is a plain vihara with eight small monastic cells are very little sculpture. It may have served as a granary for the larger halls.

Cave 2 is much more impressive. A large central chamber supported by 12 great square pillars is lined with sculptures of seated Buddhas. The doorway into the sanctuary is flanked by a muscular Padmapani, holding a lotus, and a bejewelled Maitreya, the Future Buddha. Both are accompanied by their consorts. Inside the shrine is a stately seated Buddha on a lion throne.

Caves 3 and 4 have a similar design as Cave 2, but are in poor condition.

Cave 5 is named the Maharwada Cave because it was used by local Mahar tribespeople as a shelter during the monsoon. It centers on a grand assembly hall stretching 36 meters long, which was probably used as a refectory. The two rows of carved benches support this theory. The shrine Buddha is seated on a stool with his right hand touching the ground in the Earth Witness gesture.

Cave 6 was carved in the 600s and is home to two of the finest sculptures at Ellora. On the left is the goddess Tara, with an intense but kind expression. Opposite her on the right is Mahamayuri, the Buddhist goddess of learning, shown with her attribute, the peacock. A diligent student sits at his desk below. Significantly, Mahamayuri has a very similar Hindu counterpart, Saraswati.

The magnificent Cave 10 dates from the early 700s and is known as the Carpenter's Cave (Sutar Jhopadi) because of its imitation in stone of wooden beams on the ceiling. At the far end, a seated Buddha is enthroned in front of a large stone stupa.

Cave 11 is known as the Dho Tal or "Two Floors" cave, although a basement level discovered in 1876 brings the total floors to three. The top floor is a long assembly hall lined with columns. It has both a Buddha shrine and images of Durga and Ganesh, indicating the cave was converted into a Hindu temple after it was abandoned by the Buddhists.

Cave 12, known as Tin Tal ("Three Floors"), also has an impressive upper hall. The walls of the shrine room are lined with five large bodhisattvas and is flanked by seven Buddhas, representing each of his previous incarnations.

The Hindu Caves

Created during a time of prosperity and revival of Hindusim, the Hindu caves represent an entirely different style of creative vision and skill than the Buddhist caves. The Hindu temples were carved from top to bottom and required several generations of planning and coordination to take shape.

There are 17 Hindu caves in all (numbered 13 to 29), which were carved between 600 and 870 AD. They occupy the center of the cave complex, grouped around either side of the famous Kailasa Temple.

In contrast to the serene and solemn Buddhas of the earlier caves, the walls of the Hindu caves are covered in lively bas-reliefs depicting events from the Hindu scriptures. All of the caves are dedicated to the god Shiva, but there are also some images of Vishnu and his various incarnations.

Cave 14 dates from the early 600s and was converted from a Buddhist vihara. Its long walls are adorned with magnificently carved friezes and the entrance to the sanctuary is guarded by the river goddess Ganga and Yamuna. Inside, an alcove shelters seven large-breasted fertility goddesses (the Sapta Matrikas) holding chubby babies on their laps. Appearing to their right is the female aspect of Ganesh and the cadaverous goddesses of death, Kala and Kali.

Cave 15 is also a former Buddhist cave adopted by the Hindus. The ground floor is mostly uninteresting, but the top floor has some of the best sculpture at Ellora. Along the right wall are a sequence of panels showing five of Vishnu's ten incarnations or avatars, which give the cave its name, Das Avatara.

A panel to the right of the antechamber depicts the superiority of Shaivism in the region at the time - Shiva emerges from a linga while his rivals Brahma and Vishnu stand in humility and supplication. The cave's most elegant sculpture is in the left wall of the chamber: it shows Shiva as Nataraja, the Cosmic Dancer.

The most notable Hindu cave (Cave 16) is not a cave at all, but a magnificent temple carved from the solid rock, patterned closely on the freestanding temples of the time. It represents Mount Kailash, the abode of Lord Shiva, and is called the Kailashnath, Kailash, or Kailasa Temple. It originally had a thick coat of white plaster to make it look like a snowy mountain.

The Kailash Temple is a stupendous piece of architecture, with interesting spatial effects and varied sculpture. It is believed to have been started by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (756-773). The construction was a feat of human genius – it entailed removal of 250,000 tons of rock, took 100 years to complete and covers an area double the size of Parthenon in Athens.

Many more Hindu caves stretch down the hillside north of Kailash, but only three are must-sees: 21, 25 and 29.

Cave 21, the Ramesvara, dates from the late 500s and is thought to be the oldest Hindu cave at Ellora. It houses some fine sculpture, including a pair of rvier goddesses, two door guardians and some loving couples (mithunas) around the walls of the balcony.

Cave 25 features a sculpture of the sun god Surya driving his chariot towards the dawn.

North of this, the trail soon drops steeply down to a gorge, under a seasonal waterfall, and back up to Cave 29, the Dhumar Lena. Dating from the late 500s, it has an unusual cross-shaped plan. Pairs of lions guard its three staircases. Inside, the walls are covered in large friezes. To the left of the entrance, Shiva slays the Andhaka demon, then defeats the many-armed Ravana's attempt to shake him and Parvati off the top of Mount Kailash. Don't miss the dwarf baring his bottom to taunt the demon! On the south side, Shiva teases Parvati by holding her arm back as she prepares to throw dice in a game.

The Jain Caves

The Jain caves, dating from the late 800s and 900s, are 2 km north down an asphalt road (rickshaws are available). They reflect the distinctiveness of Jain philosophy and tradition, including a strict sense of asceticism combined with elaborate decoration. They are not large compared to others, but contain exceptionally detailed artworks. Many of the Jain caves had rich paintings in the ceilings, fragments of which are still visible.

The most notable of the group is Cave 32, the Indra Sabha (Indra's Assembly Hall), a miniature of the Kailash Temple. The bottom level is plain but the upper floor has elaborate carvings, including a fine lotus flower on the ceiling. Two tirthankaras guard the entrance to the central shrine. On the right is the naked Gomatesvara, who is meditating deeply in the forest - so much so that vines have grown up his legs and animals, snakes and scorpions crawl around his feet.

Travel Resources

Multilingual tours are available at the site, which last between 1 and 4 hours and cost about Rs550 for groups of up to four. Most visitors to Ellora make the day trip from Aurangabad, but there are couple places to stay in Ellora:

The Hotel Kailas, Ellora (02437 245 443) - chalets opposite the caves and some dorm beds
Vijay's Rock Art Gallery and Restaurant (no phone) - down the road from the Kailas, very basic, run for "visiting artists, writers and thinkers"
Lemon Tree Hotel (Aurangabad) - New, clean and friendly. Currently rated #1 in Aurangabad by travelers on TripAdvisor.
Taj Residency Aurangabad - "This is the best hotel in town, catering to Aurangabad's high society crowd as well as to business and leisure travelers" (Frommer's). Currently rated #2 by travelers on TripAdvisor.
The Ambassador Ajanta - "Set amid lovely lawns with fountains and well-maintained flower beds, the Ambassador offers good facilities and a comfortable environment -- ideal for relaxing after a hectic day of cave exploration." (Frommer's) Currently rated #6 by travelers on TripAdvisor.
Quality Inn The Meadows - "Surrounded by 5.2 hectares (13 acres) of pleasant gardens, this small resort - built in 1996 - is great if you'd rather stay out of town." Ask for superior, not deluxe, especially G1. Has a petting zoo. (Frommer's) Gets mixed reviews on TripAdvisor.
MTDC Holiday Resort - "If you want ultra-cheap and functional and intend on eating out, then by all means endure a night or two." Government-run. (Frommer's)

Ajanta Caves

The  Ajanta Caves (75°40’ N; 20°30’ E) are situated at a distance of 107 km north of Aurangabad, the district headquarters. The caves attained the name from a nearby village named Ajanta located about 12 km. These caves were discovered by an Army Officer in the Madras Regiment of the British Army in 1819 during one of his hunting expeditions. Instantly the discovery became very famous and Ajanta attained a very important tourist destination in the world. The caves, famous for its murals, are the finest surviving examples of Indian art, particularly painting.

These caves are excavated in horse–shoe shaped bend of rock surface nearly 76 m in height overlooking a narrow stream known as Waghora. The location of this valley provided a calm and serene environment for the Buddhist monks who retreated at these secluded places during the rainy seasons. This retreat also provided them with enough time for furthering their religious pursuits through intellectual discourses for a considerably longer period. The caves were excavated in different periods (circa. 2nd century B.C. to 6th century A.D.) according to the necessity. Each cave was connected to the stream by a flight of steps, which are now almost obliterated, albeit traces of some could be noticed at some places.

In all, total 30 excavations were hewn out of rock which also include an unfinished one. Out of these, five (cave no. 9, 10, 19, 26, and 29) are chaityagrihas and the rest are viharas. In date and style also, these caves can be divided into two broad groups. The earliest excavations belong to the Hinayana phase of Buddhism of which similar examples could also be seen at Bhaja, Kondane, Pitalkhora, Nasik, etc. In total, 5 caves at Ajanta belong to this phase, viz., 9 & 10 which are chaityagrihas and 8, 12, 13, & 15A which are viharas. These caves are datable to the pre-Christian era, the earliest among them being Cave 10 dating from the second century B.C. The object of worship is a stupa here and these caves exhibit the imitation of wooden construction to the extent that the rafters and beams are also sculpted even though they are non-functional.

The addition of new excavations could be noticed again during the period of Vakatakas, the contemporaries of the Imperial Guptas. The caves were caused to be excavated by royal patronage and the feudatories under the Vakatakas as illustrated by the inscriptions found in the caves. Varahadeva, the minister of Vakataka king Harishena (A.D. 475-500) dedicated Cave 16 to the Buddhist Sangha while Cave 17 was the gift of a prince (who subjugated Asmaka) feudatory to the same king. The flurry of activities at Ajanta was between mid 5th century A.D. to mid 6th century A.D. However, Hieun Tsang, the famous Chinese traveller who visited India during the first half of 7th century A.D. has left a vivid and graphic description of the flourishing Buddhist establishment here even though he did not visit the caves. A solitary Rashtrakuta inscription in cave no. 26 indicates its use during 8th – 9th centuries A.D. The second phase departs from the earlier one with the introduction of new pattern in layout as well as the centrality of Buddha image, both in sculpture as well as in paintings

The world famous paintings at Ajanta also fall into two broad phases. The earliest is noticed in the form of fragmentary specimens in cave nos. 9 & 10, which are datable to second century B.C. The headgear and other ornaments of the images in these paintings resemble the bas-relief sculpture of Sanchi and Bharhut.

The second phase of paintings started around 5th – 6th centuries A.D. and continued for the next two centuries. The specimen of these exemplary paintings of Vakataka period could be noticed in cave nos. 1, 2, 16 and 17. The variation in style and execution in these paintings also are noticed, mainly due to different authors of them. A decline in the execution is also noticed in some paintings as indicated by some rigid, mechanical and lifeless figures of Buddha in some later period paintings. The main theme of the paintings is the depiction of various Jataka stories, different incidents associated with the life of Buddha, and the contemporary events and social life also. The ceiling decoration invariably consists of decorative patterns, geometrical as well as floral.

The paintings were executed after elaborate preparation of the rock surface initially. The rock surface was left with chisel marks and grooves so that the layer applied over it can be held in an effective manner. The ground layer consists of a rough layer of ferruginous earth mixed with rock-grit or sand, vegetable fibres, paddy husk, grass and other fibrous material of organic origin on the rough surface of walls and ceilings. A second coat of mud and ferruginous earth mixed with fine rock-powder or sand and fine fibrous vegetable material was applied over the ground surface. Then the surface was finally finished with a thin coat of lime wash. Over this surface, outlines are drawn boldly, then the spaces are filled with requisite colours in different shades and tones to achieve the effect of rounded and plastic volumes. The colours and shades utilised also vary from red and yellow ochre, terra verte, to lime, kaolin, gypsum, lamp black and lapis lazuli. The chief binding material used here was glue. The paintings at Ajanta are not frescoes as they are painted with the aid of a binding agent, whereas in fresco the paintings are executed while the lime wash is still wet which, thereby acts as an intrinsic binding agent.

Red Fort

In 1638 Shahjahan transferred his capital from Agra to Delhi and laid the foundations of Shahjahanabad, the seventh city of Delhi. It is enclosed by a rubble stone wall, with bastions, gates and wickets at intervals. Of its fourteen gates, the important ones are the Mori, Lahori, Ajmeri, Turkman, Kashmiri and Delhi gates, some of which have already been demolished. His famous citadel, the Lal-Qila, or the Red Fort, lying at the town's northern end on the right bank or the Yamuna and south of Salimgarh, was begun in 1639 and completed after nine years. The Red Fort is different from the Agra fort and is better planned, because at its back lies the experience gained by Shahjahan at Agra, and because it was the work of one hand. It is an irregular octagon, with two long sides on the east and west, and with two main gates, one on the west and the other on the south, called Lahori and Delhi gates respectively. While the walls, gates and a few other structures in the fort are constructed of red sandstone, marble has been largely used in the palaces.

From the western gateway after passing through the vaulted arcade, called Chhatta-Chowk, one reaches the Naubat- or Naqqar-Khana ('Drum-house'), where ceremonial music was played and which also served as the entrance to the Diwan-i-'Am. Its upper storey is now occupied by the Indian War Memorial Museum.

The Diwan-i-' Am ('Hall of Public Audience') is a rectangular hall, three aisle deep, with a façade of nine arches. At the back of the hall is an alcove, where the royal throne stood under a marble canopy, with an inlaid marble dias below it for the prime minister. The wall behind the throne is ornamented with beautiful panels of pietra dura work, said to have been executed by Austin de Bordeaux, a Florentine artist. Orpheus with his lute is represented in one of the panels here. Originally there were six marble palaces along the eastern water front. Behind the Diwan-i-' Am but separated by a court is the Rang-Mahal ('Painted Palace'), so called owing to coloured decoration on its interior. It consists of a main hall with an arched front, with vaulted chambers on either end. A water-channel, called the Nahr-i-Bihisht ('Stream of Paradise'), ran down through it, with a central marble basin fitted with an ivory fountain. The Mumtaz-Mahal, originally an important apartment in the imperial seraglio, now houses the Delhi Fort Museum.

The Diwan-i-Khass ('Hall of Private Audience') is a highly-ornamented pillared hall, with a flat ceiling supported on engrailed arches. The lower portion of its piers is ornamented with floral pietra dura panels, while the upper portion was originally gilded and painted. Its marble dias is said to have supported the famous Peacock Throne, carried away by the Persian invader Nadir Shah. 

The Tasbih-Khana ('chamber for counting beads for private prayers') consists of three rooms, behind which is the Khwabgah ('sleeping-chamber'). On the northern screen of the former is a representation of the Scales of Justice, which are suspended over a crescent amidst stars and clouds. Adjoining the eastern wall of the Khwabgah is the octagonal Muthamman-Burj, from where the emperor appeared before his subjects every morning. A small balcony, which projects from the Burj, was added here in 1808 by Akbar Shah II, and it was from this balcony that King George V and Queen Mary appeared before the people of Delhi in December 1911. 

The Hammam ('Bath') consists of three main apartments divided by corridors. The entire interior, including the floor, is built of marble and inlaid with coloured stones. The baths were provided with 'hot and cold water’, and it is said that one of the fountains in the easternmost apartment emitted rose water. To the west of the Hammam is the Moti-Masjid ('Pearl Mosque'), added later by Aurangzeb. The Hayat-Bakhsh-Bagh ('Life-giving garden'), with its pavilions, lies to the north of the mosque, and was later considerably altered and reconstructed. The red-stone pavilion in the middle of the tank in the centre of the Hayat-Bakhsh-Bagh is called Zafar-Mahal and was built by Bahadur Shah II in about 1842.

In 1644, Shahjahan commenced in Delhi his great mosque, the Jami'- Masjid the largest mosque in India, and completed it in 1650. Its square quadrangle with arched cloisters on the sides and a tank in the centre is 100 m. wide. Built on a raised plinth, it has three imposing gateways approached by long flights of steps. Its prayer-hall, with a facade of eleven arches, flanked by a four-storeyed minaret on either end, is covered by three large domes ornamented with alternating stripes of 'black and white marble.